An outline, era by era

Iberia

Al-Andalus and the Reconquista

Medieval / Post-Classical Era · ~500 – ~1500 CE

Iberia is the peninsula in south-western Europe that today holds Spain and Portugal. In 711 CE a Muslim army from North Africa crossed the strait of Gibraltar and quickly overthrew the Visigothic kingdom. The Muslim-ruled territory, called al-Andalus, was at times most of the peninsula and later shrank to the south. Under the Umayyads of Córdoba, and then under many smaller successor states, it became a centre of trade, learning, agriculture and art.

The Reconquista is the name given to the long process by which the Christian kingdoms of the north, among them Asturias-León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal, expanded southward. It is usually dated from about 718 or 722 to the fall of Granada in 1492. Historians stress that it was not one continuous war. There were long periods of truce, alliance across religious lines, and shifting borders. The era left lasting marks on Spanish and Portuguese language, law, architecture and identity, and on the transmission of learning to the rest of Europe.

Things happened, and the rest is history

  1. The Muslim conquest of the Visigothic kingdom

    Event

    What happened

    In 711 a Muslim army under Tariq ibn Ziyad, sent by the governor of Ifriqiya, Musa ibn Nusayr, crosses from North Africa and defeats the Visigothic king Roderic in battle in southern Iberia. Within a few years Muslim forces take Toledo, Córdoba and much of the peninsula. Musa himself arrives in 712, and by about 720 Muslim forces are active north of the Pyrenees.

    The rest is history

    The Visigothic monarchy, which had long suffered disputed successions, collapsed rapidly, though the exact reasons are debated. Many towns made treaties and kept their laws and religion in return for tribute. The new province, al-Andalus, was at first ruled by governors under the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus. Its conquest set the stage for everything else in the history of medieval Iberia.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryChronicle of 754 (Mozarabic Chronicle). Latin chronicle written in Iberia, 754 CE.The earliest near-contemporary account of the conquest.
    2. BookCollins, Roger. The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.
    3. BookKennedy, Hugh. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. London: Longman, 1996.

  2. Covadonga and the kingdom of Asturias

    Event

    What happened

    In the early 720s a force led by Pelayo resists a Muslim expedition in the mountains of Asturias in the far north. Later Asturian chronicles present him as the first ruler of a small Christian polity there. His successors, notably Alfonso I (reigned 739 to 757), are said by those chronicles to have extended its power into neighbouring areas such as Galicia.

    The rest is history

    The Asturian kingdom survived for several reasons that historians weigh differently. They include local resistance, the remoteness of the mountains, shifting priorities of the new Muslim rulers, and Berber revolts in the 740s that weakened their authority in the north. The kingdom later moved its court to León. Later chroniclers made Covadonga the starting point of the Reconquista, though the real scale of the battle is unclear and probably small. The evidence for the extent of Alfonso I's expansion is thin and comes mostly from sources written over a century later.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryChronicle of Alfonso III. Latin chronicle from the Asturian court, c. 880 CE.
    2. BookCollins, Roger. Early Medieval Spain: Unity in Diversity, 400-1000. London: Macmillan, 1983.

  3. The Umayyad emirate and caliphate of Córdoba

    Event

    What happened

    In 750 the Abbasids overthrow the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus. A survivor, Abd al-Rahman I, escapes to Iberia and in 756 takes power at Córdoba as emir. In 929 his descendant Abd al-Rahman III proclaims himself caliph, and under him and his son al-Hakam II Córdoba becomes one of the largest cities in Europe, with a great mosque and a famed library.

    The rest is history

    The caliphate gave al-Andalus a long period of strong central rule, tax revenue and cultural prestige. At times, especially under the general al-Mansur, Christian rulers to the north paid tribute or sought Córdoba's favour, though relations varied by period and ruler. After al-Mansur's death in 1002, the state fell into civil war. In 1031 the caliphate was formally abolished. Its legacy lived on in the city's buildings, such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba, which is still standing.

    Sources

    1. BookKennedy, Hugh. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. London: Longman, 1996.
    2. BookFierro, Maribel. Abd al-Rahman III: The First Cordoban Caliph. Oxford: Oneworld, 2005.

  4. The taifa kingdoms and the fall of Toledo

    Event

    What happened

    After the caliphate ends in 1031, al-Andalus splits into many small kingdoms called taifas, such as Seville, Badajoz, Zaragoza and Granada. Their rulers pay tribute (parias) to Christian kings, especially Fernando I of León-Castile, in exchange for protection. In 1085 Alfonso VI of León-Castile takes the city of Toledo.

    The rest is history

    The fall of Toledo was a major turning point, as it moved the Christian frontier from the Duero to the Tagus river. Alarmed taifa rulers asked for help from the Almoravids of Morocco, who crossed over in 1086 and defeated Alfonso at Zallaqa. The Almoravids then took over most of al-Andalus. Toledo later became a centre where Arabic works were translated into Latin.

    Sources

    1. BookWasserstein, David. The Rise and Fall of the Party-Kings: Politics and Society in Islamic Spain, 1002-1086. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.
    2. BookReilly, Bernard F. The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065-1109. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.

  5. The Almoravids and Almohads

    Event

    What happened

    The Almoravids, a Berber movement from the Sahara, rule al-Andalus from about 1090 to the 1140s. They are replaced by the Almohads, another Moroccan movement, who take over in the following decades. In 1195 the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur defeats Alfonso VIII of Castile at Alarcos.

    The rest is history

    Both dynasties imposed stricter religious policies than the taifa rulers, and many Jews and Christians left or were pressured. The Almohads were defeated by a coalition of Christian kings at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, a battle with papal backing. Almohad power in Iberia then collapsed.

    Sources

    1. BookFletcher, Richard. Moorish Spain. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992.
    2. BookO'Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975.

  6. Las Navas de Tolosa and the great conquests of the thirteenth century

    Event

    What happened

    On 16 July 1212 the kings of Castile, Aragon and Navarre, with troops from Portugal and crusaders from beyond the Pyrenees, defeat the Almohad caliph al-Nasir at Las Navas de Tolosa. In the next decades Fernando III of Castile takes Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248), and James I of Aragon takes Valencia (1238) and Majorca (1229). Portugal completes its conquest of the Algarve by 1249.

    The rest is history

    Within about forty years almost all of al-Andalus was lost, except the emirate of Granada. Many Muslims stayed under Christian rule as a minority, later called mudéjares. Christian settlers were brought in to repopulate conquered regions. The shape of the Iberian kingdoms for the next two centuries was set by these conquests.

    Sources

    1. BookO'Callaghan, Joseph F. Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
    2. PrimaryRodrigo Jiménez de Rada, Historia de rebus Hispaniae. Latin chronicle, c. 1243 CE.An account by an archbishop who took part in the campaign.

  7. Granada, the last Muslim kingdom

    Event

    What happened

    In 1238 Muhammad I ibn Nasr founds the Nasrid emirate of Granada, which survives by paying tribute to Castile. Its rulers build the Alhambra palace. In 1469 Isabella of Castile marries Ferdinand of Aragon, and from 1482 their armies campaign against Granada. The city surrenders on 2 January 1492.

    The rest is history

    The fall of Granada ended Muslim rule on the peninsula after nearly 800 years. Under the surrender terms Muslims were promised religious freedom, but these promises were soon undone, and forced conversions followed from 1499 to 1502. The same year, Isabella and Ferdinand backed the voyage of Columbus.

    Sources

    1. BookHarvey, L. P. Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
    2. BookKamen, Henry. Spain 1469-1714: A Society of Conflict. London: Longman, 1983.

  8. Translation from Arabic in Toledo

    Event

    What happened

    After Christian forces take Toledo in 1085, the city gradually becomes a centre where Arabic books on astronomy, medicine, mathematics and philosophy are translated into Latin, often with the help of Jewish and Mozarabic assistants. The work involves different scholars at different times, and grows in the twelfth century. In the thirteenth century Alfonso X of Castile sponsors translations into Castilian.

    The rest is history

    Through these translations works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, Galen and Arabic authors such as al-Khwarizmi became available to western European scholars. Toledo was one important channel among several, since Greek and Arabic learning also came through Sicily, southern Italy and elsewhere. Historians debate whether there was ever a formal Toledo school of translators. The Alfonsine Tables of planetary positions, produced under Alfonso X, were used for centuries.

    Sources

    1. BookBurnett, Charles, ed. Adelard of Bath: An English Scientist and Arabist of the Early Twelfth Century. London: Warburg Institute, 1987.
    2. BookMenocal, María Rosa. The Ornament of the World. Boston: Little, Brown, 2002.

  9. El Cid, the loyal knight

    Heroic tale

    The legend

    El Cid, Rodrigo Díaz of Vivar, is exiled by his king, Alfonso VI, but remains loyal. He wins great victories over the Moors, takes Valencia, and wins back the king's favour. In later tradition, even after his death his body is strapped on his horse and rides out to win one more battle.

    The rest is history

    Rodrigo Díaz was a real man, who died in 1099. Exiled by Alfonso VI in 1081, he served Muslim rulers such as the king of Zaragoza and later fought for himself, taking Valencia in 1094 and ruling it until his death. The name Cid comes from Arabic sayyid, meaning lord. The Poem of the Cid was written down around 1200 and is the oldest surviving long poem in Castilian. The posthumous ride is not in the poem but belongs to later legend, and the poem shows him as a mix of loyal vassal and self-made lord.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryPoema de mio Cid. Castilian epic poem, manuscript copy of 1207 CE (Per Abbat).
    2. BookFletcher, Richard. The Quest for El Cid. New York: Knopf, 1989.
    3. PrimaryHistoria Roderici. Latin biography of Rodrigo Díaz, mid-twelfth century.

  10. Roderic, La Cava and the fall of Spain

    Folk tale

    The legend

    King Roderic seduces or rapes La Cava, the daughter of Count Julian, governor of Ceuta. Julian, seeking revenge, betrays the king and invites the Muslims into Spain. In some versions Roderic enters a locked tower in Toledo and breaks the seals, releasing a vision of invaders.

    The rest is history

    The story appears first in Arabic sources of the ninth and tenth centuries and in later Christian chronicles, centuries after 711, and no contemporary source mentions it. Julian may be a real figure, but his role is uncertain. The story gave later writers a moral explanation for the loss of the kingdom, blaming royal sin. Modern historians instead look to Visigothic political divisions and the strength of the invaders.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryIbn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr. Arabic history of the conquests, ninth century CE.
    2. BookCollins, Roger. The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.

  11. Santiago Matamoros

    Myth

    The legend

    At the battle of Clavijo, in the year 844, Saint James the Apostle appears on a white horse and leads the Christian army to victory over the Moors. He becomes known as Santiago Matamoros, the Moor-slayer, the patron of the Reconquista.

    The rest is history

    No battle of Clavijo in 844 is known from contemporary sources, and the story appeared in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The tomb said to be that of St James was reported at Compostela in the early ninth century, and the shrine became a major pilgrimage site. The image of the warrior saint grew as the Reconquista took on crusading features. The Order of Santiago was founded around 1170.

    Sources

    1. BookFletcher, Richard. Saint James's Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
    2. BookRemensnyder, Amy G. La Conquistadora. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

  12. La convivencia: a golden age of tolerance

    Popular belief

    The legend

    Medieval al-Andalus is often described as a paradise where Muslims, Christians and Jews lived together in harmony for centuries. It is sometimes called the age of convivencia, a model of tolerance.

    The rest is history

    Jews and Christians were protected people under Muslim law, which allowed them to practise their religion but required a tax and gave them lower status. Jewish scholars such as Hasdai ibn Shaprut and Samuel ibn Naghrila reached high office, and exchange of ideas was real. But there were also riots, persecutions and forced conversions, especially under the Almohads. The term convivencia was popularised by the historian Américo Castro in the 1940s, and many scholars now see the reality as a mix of cooperation and conflict.

    Sources

    1. BookMenocal, María Rosa. The Ornament of the World. Boston: Little, Brown, 2002.
    2. BookCatlos, Brian A. Muslims of Medieval Latin Christendom, c. 1050-1614. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.

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