An outline, era by era

Gupta Empire

"Golden Age" of India

Classical Antiquity · ~500 BCE – ~500 CE

The Gupta Empire ruled much of northern India from the early fourth century CE to the later fifth century, with its heartland in the Ganges plain and its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Its rulers rose from a modest kingdom, and under Chandragupta I, Samudragupta and Chandragupta II they brought a large part of the subcontinent under their control or influence. The dynasty declined in the later fifth century, and its power ended in the sixth.

The period is often called a 'Golden Age' of India because of its achievements in Sanskrit literature, art, mathematics and astronomy. Kalidasa wrote his poetry and plays, Aryabhata set out his astronomical and mathematical work, and Gupta-era coins and temples show a refined court culture. Historians now caution that the label is a modern, partly nationalist one, and that other periods also saw great creativity. Even so, the Gupta age left a lasting mark on Indian art, learning and religion.

Things happened, and the rest is history

  1. Chandragupta I and the start of the Gupta era

    Event

    What happened

    Around 319 to 320 CE, Chandragupta I, a ruler in the middle Ganges region, begins the reign from which the Gupta era is later counted. He marries Kumaradevi, who belongs to the Licchavi family. Later Gupta inscriptions and coins stress this link.

    The rest is history

    The marriage probably strengthened his standing in the Ganges plain, though the exact political gains are debated. The Gupta era dating, beginning about 319 to 320 CE, was used in inscriptions for generations. His son Samudragupta inherited a kingdom ready to expand. Gold coins showing the king and queen together survive as evidence of the alliance.

    Sources

    1. BookGoyal, S. R. A History of the Imperial Guptas. Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1967.
    2. BookThapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

  2. Samudragupta's conquests and the Allahabad pillar

    Event

    What happened

    In the mid fourth century CE, Samudragupta campaigns across northern India and into the south. His court poet Harishena records these victories on an Ashokan pillar at Prayaga (Allahabad). The inscription lists kings he defeated, rulers who paid tribute, and frontier states that submitted.

    The rest is history

    The inscription is the main source for his reign. It shows a policy of direct rule in the north and tribute from many distant kingdoms, rather than annexation everywhere. His gold coins, some showing him playing the lute, spread the fame of the dynasty. The pillar still stands in Prayagraj, and he was succeeded by Chandragupta II around 375 CE.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryAllahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. Sanskrit prashasti by Harishena, c. 350 to 375 CE. In Fleet, J. F., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. 3, 1888.
    2. BookGoyal, S. R. A History of the Imperial Guptas. Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1967.

  3. Chandragupta II and the conquest of the Western Kshatrapas

    Event

    What happened

    Around 390 to 410 CE, Chandragupta II defeats the Shaka Western Kshatrapas, who ruled Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra. He issues silver coins in their style, and takes the title Vikramaditya on some coins. He also marries his daughter Prabhavatigupta to a Vakataka king.

    The rest is history

    The conquest gave the Guptas access to Arabian Sea ports and trade with the West. Ujjain became an important second centre. The Vakataka alliance secured the Deccan frontier. Under his rule the empire reached its greatest extent and prosperity, and the Chinese monk Faxian visited about 400 to 411 CE.

    Sources

    1. BookThapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
    2. BookGoyal, S. R. A History of the Imperial Guptas. Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1967.

  4. Faxian visits Gupta India

    Event

    What happened

    Between about 399 and 412 CE, the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian travels through India seeking Buddhist texts. He crosses the northwest, the Ganges plain and Pataliputra, then sails home from the east coast. He records what he sees in a travel account.

    The rest is history

    Faxian describes a peaceful, prosperous land with light taxes and free hospitals, though he never names the king, who was probably Chandragupta II. His account is a rare outside view of Gupta society, and shows Buddhism still thriving beside Brahmanical religion. His record is one reason historians speak of Gupta prosperity, though it should be read as one pilgrim's impression.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryFaxian. A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms (Foguo ji). Chinese travel account, c. 414 CE.
    2. BookLegge, James, trans. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886.

  5. Skandagupta and the Huna invasions

    Event

    What happened

    Around 455 to 467 CE, Skandagupta faces invasions by the Hunas from the northwest. His Bhitari pillar inscription says he defeated them. Later in the century, Huna pressure grows again under Toramana and Mihirakula.

    The rest is history

    Skandagupta's victory held the empire for a time, but the wars strained the treasury, and his coins show debased gold. After his death the line weakened and provincial governors became more independent. By the early sixth century Huna rulers held parts of the northwest, and Gupta power faded by about 550 CE.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryBhitari Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta. Sanskrit inscription, c. 460 CE. In Fleet, J. F., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. 3, 1888.
    2. BookThapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

  6. Kalidasa, the court poet of Vikramaditya

    Folk tale

    The legend

    Kalidasa is said to have begun as a simple, foolish man who was tricked into marrying a learned princess. Through devotion to the goddess Kali he gains great poetic gifts. He then becomes one of the Nine Gems at the court of King Vikramaditya.

    The rest is history

    These stories are late and not found in Kalidasa's own works. Nothing certain is known of his life, and even his date is debated, though most scholars place him in the Gupta age, around the fourth or fifth century. His plays, including Shakuntala, and poems such as the Meghaduta are secure. The Nine Gems tradition appears centuries later, and links to Chandragupta II are only possible.

    Sources

    1. BookMiller, Barbara Stoler, trans. Theater of Memory: The Plays of Kalidasa. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
    2. BookThapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

  7. The pillar that never rusts

    Popular belief

    The legend

    The iron pillar at Delhi is said to have stood for over 1,500 years without rusting, thanks to a lost ancient science. Some tell that it was raised by Chandragupta II and holds a secret no modern metallurgist can match.

    The rest is history

    The pillar does carry a Sanskrit inscription praising a king named Chandra, usually identified with Chandragupta II, so a Gupta date is plausible. It was probably moved to Delhi later. It has rusted a little, but a thin protective layer rich in iron phosphate forms on its surface, helped by the iron's high phosphorus content and Delhi's dry climate. So it is skilled smithing, not a mystery. The pillar stands in the Qutb complex in Delhi.

    Sources

    1. BookBalasubramaniam, R. The Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 2002.
    2. PrimaryMeharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of King Chandra. Sanskrit inscription, c. 4th to 5th century CE.

  8. Aryabhata and the invention of zero

    Popular belief

    The legend

    Aryabhata is often said to have invented zero and to have been the first to show that the Earth spins. His name is given to India's first satellite, launched in 1975.

    The rest is history

    Aryabhata, born in 476 CE, wrote the Aryabhatiya around 499 CE. It does state that the Earth rotates, and gives a good value for pi and sine tables. But zero did not originate with him. Place-value notation and zero developed over several centuries, and an early dot for zero appears in the Bakhshali manuscript, whose date is debated. His work used a place-value system, though not a written zero symbol. India's satellite Aryabhata was launched on 19 April 1975.

    Sources

    1. PrimaryAryabhatiya of Aryabhata. Sanskrit astronomical treatise, c. 499 CE.
    2. BookPlofker, Kim. Mathematics in India. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.

  9. The Golden Age of India

    Popular belief

    The legend

    The Gupta age is often described as a time of perfect peace, wealth and learning, when all of India flourished under wise kings.

    The rest is history

    The 'Golden Age' idea was shaped by nineteenth and twentieth century historians, some influenced by Indian nationalism, who wanted a classical high point. The Guptas did support fine art, coinage and literature. But the empire did not rule all of India, and earlier and later dynasties also produced great works. Many historians now see the label as too simple. Gupta coins and inscriptions show real wealth, but also regional variation.

    Sources

    1. BookThapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
    2. BookSharma, R. S. India's Ancient Past. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.

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